Carlowitz was born in northern Saxony to Georg v. Carlowitz, a courthouse officer, and his spouse Ida von Könneritz. After his Abitur, Adolph studied law at Leipzig University but after a couple years opted for a military career with the Saxon Army. He had previously served as a one-year volunteer with the 8. Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 107 in Leipzig.

General von Carlowitz' military career saw him serving in several general staff positions within the Saxon Army at the division and corps level. He also served for a few years with the Prussian Great General Staff in Berlin. He eventually replaced von Hausen as Saxony's Minister of War in May 1914, just prior to the outbreak of World War One. This position was actually intended for leading a field army in case of hostilities, but Carlowitz was instead called to head up the newly formed XXVII. (sächsisch-württembergische) Reserve-Korps. He excelled in these duties, even though during peace time he'd never commanded above the brigade level. After recovering from a heart ailment in October 1914, he returned to the field to lead the Royal Prussian 12. Infanterie-Division. General Carlowitz was transferred to the Eastern Front in the summer of 1915 as commander of the Prussian III. Reserve-Korps which played an important role during the Russian's Spring Offensive of 1916. In the summer of 1917, Carlowitz replaced the deceased Maximilian von Laffert as commanding general of the Saxon XIX. Armee-Korps which was engaged on the Western Front. This corps was known as "Gruppe Aubers" during the successful offensive at Armentieres in April 1918, for which von Carlowitz received the Pour le Merite. 

During the last few months of the war, von Carlowitz took charge of 9. Armee-Oberkommando, responsible for defensive operations between Oise and Aisne. He thereafter headed up 2. Armee-Oberkommando which battled Rawlinson's Fourth Army near Cambrai and St Quentin. After the Great War ended, he retired from the army on 14 January 1919 and spent his last remaining years with his wife at Gersdorf near Döbeln. He was married to Priska von Stieglitz, and they had one son and three daughters. Adolph von Carlowitz died at Gersdorf on 9 July 1922 and is buried at the military cemetery in Dresden-Alberstadt.